Art Therapy: History vs. Future

A brief overview by C. Andreadis M.A., M.S., ATR

While some might argue as to the origins of art therapy, many place considerable emphasis on its analytical connections with the past as suggested by Gladys Agell (1994). Others in the field view the profession as having its roots at a much earlier date. Young (1995) makes several comparisons with possible origins in Hasidism, Zen Buddhism and Balinese culture. Young (1995) also suggests connections with early American Shaker philosophy. Regardless of its origins, contemporary art therapy is comprised of people who "hold diverse beliefs and variously define the ways they work" (Agell 1994). Art therapists represent this diversity through a wide range of theories and opinions. Among these theories are many concerns about our future and present status. Levick (1994) suggests that art therapists "must take professional responsibility for reconceptualizing our role in the field of mental health." Others, including Landgarten (1994) perceive art therapy as "an alternative medicine which is slowly but continually gaining more ground in the 21st. century."

The profession is continually changing, it is also continually growing. Art therapists have many current concerns, including professional recognition, public acceptance and state licensure. Many still cling to the inroads made in the past as Malchiodi (1994) indicates; "We often seem to be hung-up on some ideas that are outdated or archaic... The idea I wish to present is that if we truly wish to grow in the next century, it is time to let go of the past." While many of the inroads made by the pioneers of the past continue to be of exceptional value, we must also reexamine the present. Many of the characteristics of our society have remained the same, but many must be viewed from a different perspective. Wadeson (1994) states that; "the soil for art therapy growth is likely to be most fertile in the fields of social, rather than in the more traditional psychiatric needs." Times have changed, and we as art therapists now encounter populations which are no longer the mainstream of hospitalized patients. Increasingly more student practicum locations include homeless shelters, day treatment programs, domestic violence shelters, group homes, public schools, and AIDS programs. Wadeson (1994) also states that "art therapy is increasingly becoming recognized as a major modality in tapping into experiences of violence and abuse that may not be accessible by words." The implications for children and/or their families are significant. The number of individuals seeking professional help for reasons of domestic violence, sexual abuse, and/or AIDS related issues are on the increase. Katy Butler (1995) states that "in the 1980's hundreds of thousands of women had revealed to friends, therapists, 12 step groups and TV talk shows, that they had been sexually abused."

In addition to changing populations, art therapists are also concerned with continued and increased research in the field and the role of art therapy in the school systems. Both areas will have impact either directly or indirectly on children and their families. Anderson (1994) advocates that art therapists be trained sufficiently in a range of research methodologies so that they can "cogently read the literature both in art therapy and in the related fields. This increase in research related information will enhance the art therapists abilities to assist future populations." Janet Bush (1994) looks forward to the 21st. century, "when art therapy may be available in every school district in the nation." Similarly it is my opinion that all art educators, counselors and school administrators be required to complete atleast one course in art therapy prior to certification in the same way that some states currently require courses in drug abuse prevention and/or child abuse recognition. Bush (1994) comments on a related issue in her statement:

"In the 21st. century art therapy will be equipped to offer children opportunities to work through obstacles impeding their educational success. It will facilitate appropriate social behavior and promote healthy affective development through which these children can become more receptive to academic involvement, and it will maximize their social and academic potential."

Levick (1994) adds, "We must build unique and individual styles of treatment, the 21st. century art therapist will become a respected member of the professional force who treats young and old individuals in society suffering from some form of mental illness, and who respects the creativity in all of us." Although the field of art therapy as we know it is relatively new, it is a remarkable tool which can serve as viable part of the solution for the many ills that threaten our society. Much of the power of art therapy is in the process and creation of the art work itself. I have witnessed many children and adults who have been able to express inner issues and concerns in clear and concise ways without the use of words. They have expressed issues related to their illness, abuse, neglect or fear.

The process of educating the public about the profession of art therapy is essential to its survival now and in the future. Perhaps art therapist Robert Ault (1994) should state his own case in closing by sharing a dream. "We are all aware that children find and honor themselves through art and music and dance. Families can learn to deal with eachother with respect and without violence. Communities can also come to understand differences and find commonalities for connecting and exchange as we return to the widespread use of the oldest civilizing agent of all, the arts." Perhaps this dream will become a reality and our children will all live to see a brighter future, and we as art therapists could make all the difference.

References

Agell, Gladys (1994) Art Therapy Journal of AATA Vol.11 #1, Mundelein,Il. (pp.29-30)

Young, Jim (1995) Art Therapy Journal of AATA Vol.12 #3, Mundelein, Il. (p.193)

Levick, Myra (1994) Art Therapy Journal of AATA Vol.11 #2, Mundelein, Il. (p.99, p.101)

Landgarten, Helen (1994) Art Therapy Journal of AATA Vol.11 #2, Mundelein, Il. (p.97)

Malchiodi, Cathy A . (1994) Art Therapy Journal of AATA, Vol.11 #4, Munelein, Il. (p.258)

Wadeson, Harriet (1994) Art Therapy Journal of AATA Vol.11 #1. Mundelein, Il. (p.28)

Butler, Katy (1995) Family Therapy Networker Vol.19 #2 Silver Spring, Md. (p.26)

Anderson, Frances (1994) Art Therapy Journal of AATA Vol.11 #2, Mundelein, Il. (p.95)

Bush, Janet (1994) Art Therapy Journal of AATA Vol.11 #1, Mundelein, Il. (p.32)

Ault, Robert E. (1994) Art Therapy Journal of AATA Vol.11 #4, Mundelein, Il. (p.42 )

A History of Art Therapy

A student submitted research paper by:

Teri A. Koressel

How did art therapy begin? The late stages of the Old Stone Age seem to be the earliest works of art known to man. (AATA, 1997) Early man would unconsciously change objects into symbols and would use these symbols to express religion and his visual art. The inter-twined history of religion and art, reaching back to prehistoric times, is the record that our ancestors have left us of the symbols that were meaningful and moving to them. (Jung, 232)

"Throughout the history of mankind, dreams, myths and folklore have always provided a source of communication and living wisdom." (Robins, 7) In the seventeenth century, our value system changed to one that worshipped the power of the word and logical, scientific thinking. Art was mainly about physical outward appearances and not the emotions and feelings that were coming from inside the minds and souls of human beings. Dreams and mythic images became the forgotten language. Because the science of psychoanalysis came about, tweentieth man had rediscovered the inner world. The psychodynamic theory of symbolism allowed us to see into to mans secret wishes and fears. (Robins, 8)

There is evidence that strongly suggests that the primitive people's visual arts were functional, like a magical formula, bringing together spirits, in exorcism, providing places for evil spirits to rest, creating wild animals when game was scarce for the hunt, and invoking rain or fertility. Art was used to treat physical as well as mental disorders. (Feder,1)

A good deal is known about the use of music, dance, and art among the Indians of North America. The Navajo, for example, in their well known "curing" songs, used a combination of song, dance, and sandpainting, in which specific patterns were used for specific illnesses.(Feder,3)

"Before they began to use phonetic symbols as the basis of a written language, humans used pictorial symbols to give permanance to their expressions, and to convert them into communications. The search for meaning among early humans must have involved the desire to communicate that meaning to others." (Feder, 70)

At the beginning of the 20th. century, psychiatrists started studying the patients artwork to see if there was a link between the art and the illness of their patients. Art educators were also discovering that the free and spontaneous art expression of children represented both emotional and symbolic communications. Art therapy itself did not emerge as a profession until the 1930's. Currently the profession of art therapy has grown into an effective and important method of communication, assessment, and treatment with many populations. (AATA, 1997)

It was Aristotle who said that "art releases unconcious tensions and purges the soul." There is a term called the cathartic function that is common to many of the expressive therapies. It is based on the finding that if a person expresses a problem or a concern, it will provide relief. The artistic process itself is often enough to release tension. There is no need to be dependent on verbalization. (Feder, 68)

I remember as a young child, I would draw many pictures of my family, depicting them as ugly or beautiful, depending on how much I liked them at the time. I remember being quite angry, frequently in my childhood, and it seemed that my best defense in being heard or recognized, were the drawings I would create, in the hope that someone in my family would discover their meaning. So, I would suppose that I was integrating a "cathartic function," because I would feel better about things after I drew my sisters ugly and grotesgue after they teased me unmercifully.

Most therapists know Margaret Naumburg as the mother of art therapy, but not too many realize the part that her older sister, Florence Cane, played in the field's eventual development. Florence Cane was an artist and art teacher; Margaret Naumburg, an educator who became a psychologist and art therapist. Fundamentally their work does not conflict, they compliment one an other. Florence developed teaching methods to free artistic expression. Building on Florence's achievement, Margaret concentrated on developing methods of therapy using art (Borowski, 10) Although other individuals had considered themselves art therapists and had written about their work prior to 1940, Margaret Naumburg was the first to describe art therapy as a separate profession and a distinct form of psychotherapy. (Borowsky, 22)

Many of the art therapists did not write about their work or give national presentations like Naumburg. Therefore there is little documentation available to reconstruct the history of art therapy in the 1940's and 1950's. Some individuals began as art educators in special settings and gradually developed methods which suited the groups with whom they worked. Few called themselves "art therapists". Some began in volunteer positions which only eventually led to paying positions. Some were convinced that they were the only ones doing what they did and were surprised to learn about others, let alone specific books or articles on the subject. (Borowski, 49)

I'd like to mention a little about the scribble, since it happens to be one of my favorite techniques. The concept of the scribble was developed by Florence Cane. It originally began with drawing in the air, using wide rhythmic movements that engaged the whole body. When a certain freedom and intensity was reached, the student drew with those movements on a large sheet of paper, working with closed eyes. The resulting scribble was then examined from all directions, until the individual saw forms that suggested a picture to him. He would then complete the picture, adding lines to it so that the finished picture usually had little resemblance to its initial scribble. (Kramer, 10)

Edith Kramer wrote about her earliest observations on how valuable art is for children under stress.Dating back to the late 1930's, Kramer conducted art classes for children of refugees from Nazi Germany. She observed the different responses to stress, as the traumatized children expressed themselves through their artwork. Kramer saw regression and repeated patterns that told of unresolved conflict. The aggressive side came out from some of the children who were familiar with Hitler and of the damage he had done to them with his power. Some children were so traumatized that they became withdrawn, and sometimes so much so that they remained frozen in a rigid like state. Even with all these difficulties, the capacity for creative expression still survived. This art, created by these children, was recovered after World War II and was widely exhibited throughout Europe. These creations affirmed the power of art as one could see how the children advanced and grew through their self-expression inspite of great hardship. (Kramer, xiv)

In the early 1950's, Kramer applied for a job at the Wiltwyck School for Boys, which was a therapeutic residential community. A doctor friend pursuaded the advisory board to hire Kramer, figuring she would be able to work with these disturbed children. They did not hire her as an art teacher, in fact the executive director asked Kramer, "Well what are we going to call you?"Although Kramer replied, "art teacher" after some discussion it was agreed that they would use the words "art and therapist." (Borowski, 32)

Carl Jung was a firm believer in the idea that imagination and creativity were healing forces. Jungian psychotherapy, even more than Freudian psychoanalysis, provides a great source of approaches for the practitioner in the expressive arts therapies. Jung's importance to active imagination, encourages the patient to fantasize and to explore. Feelings are explored through a variety of ways, such as painting, sculpture, music and movement. (Feder, 30)

Sigmund Freud gave art therapists a solid base for diagnostic work that followed psychoanalytic processes when he wrote about the images presented in dreams. Freud said that "all of our dreams are preponderantly visual," and he was painfully aware that much of the dream experience is lost in the translation of these images into words. Freud noted that his patients often said that they could draw an image, but they were unable to describe it in words. (Feder, 60)

It was during World War II that both psychotherapy and art therapy evolved. Adrian Hill, a professional artist, took credit for making up the term "art therapy" in 1942. Hill was recovering in a tuberculosis sanitarium and turned to his art for his own therapy and eventually received permission to introduce painting to other patients. He discovered that the patients not only enjoyed the work, but they used it to express their feelings, fears and the traumatic events of the war. (Borowsky, 51)

In the 1960's and early 1970's, art therapy practice was similar to a sensitive form of art teaching. It was like being at one of the best art colleges where the therapist took the time and the effort and care to encourage patients to develop their own form of visual expression and enter into a supportive, nonconfrontive relationship. Art therapy departments tended to to be isolated from the rest of the hospital, and often the therapists worked on their own. Although some art therapists had the experience of psychotherapy or some had training in psychology, it was not until the late 1970's and early 1980's that many developed a stronger orientation toward psychodynamic practice. (Borowsky, 52)

"It is important to recognize that the early growth of the art therapy profession came in large measure because of cross-fertilization between art therapy and the psychiatric community." (Borowsky, 54) From an early start, art therapists took the opportunity to tell others about their work. Not only did they describe what had happened in their sessions, they also showed the patients artwork. People could see the solid visual proof of the power and potential of art in therapy. (Borowsky, 54) In many cases early art therapists were assisted by psychiatrists and psychoanalysts. These psychiatrists and psychoanalysts were directors of hospitals or institutes or in private practice and, because of their deep personal interest in art and their awareness of the psychological processes that art could evoke, were willing to experiment. (Borowsky, 54) They often offered eager art therapists employment, opportunities to practice and to publish, and gave art therapy a kind of validity within the psychiatric community it might not have otherwise achieved for years to come. (Borowsky, 54)

The first art therapists tended to practice in psychiatric hospitals, or they came out of art education as art teachers. This was a great period when there was expanding employment of art therapists in all kinds of facilities, and with a wide variety of populations. The 1960's through the mid 1970's were a period of growth and hopefulness in the mental healthcare field. The development of the major tranquilizers and the creation of community mental health centers provided long term mental patients out of wards of hospitals an opportunity to be treated in their home communities. "With deinstitutionalization, art therapists began to work in outpatient community mental health clinics, crisis units, pain and stress programs, day treatment hospital programs for the chronically ill, therapeutic and public schools, residential treatment centers, private practice, with the physically disabled, at drug and alcohol facilities, and with other clients of all ages. art therapists extended their practice to work not only with individuals and groups, but also with couples and families."(Borowsky,82)

In the1980's, because of increasing problems of physical and sexual abuse, mental health practitioners, lawyers, and judges, examined the artwork of children for possible indicators of abuse. In the past most art therapists had worked under the direction of a psychiatrist, or as an adjunctive to another therapist. By this period in time some training programs began to educate art therapists in becoming primary therapists carrying major responsibility for case management, assessment and diagnosis, and treatment. Clients who were not very interested or skilled in art, began to recognize the value of art therapy. (Borowsky, 83)

Bibliography

Borowsky Junge, Maxine. 1994. A History of Art Therapy in the United States. Illinois: The American Art Therapy Association, Inc. pp. 10, 22, 32, 49, 51, 52, 54, 82, 83

Feder, Elaine & Bernard. 1981. The Expressive Arts Therapies. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. pp. 1, 3, 30, 60, 68, 70

Jung, Carl. 1964. Man and His Symbols. New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc. p.232

Kramer, Edith. 1971. Art as Therapy With Children. New York: Schocken Books, Inc. pp.xix, 10

Robbins, Arthur, & Linda Beth Sibley. 1976. Creative Art Therapy. New York: Brunner/Mazel Publishers. pp. 7, 8